Serological survey reveals enzootic circulation of St. Louis encephalitis and West Nile viruses in semiarid Monte ecosystem of Argentina.

St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and West Nile virus (WNV) are arboviruses transmitted by Culex mosquitoes and amplified in avian hosts. The present study aimed to investigate the presence and seasonal circulation of SLEV and WNV in La Rioja province, within the semiarid ecoregion of the Monte, Argentina. Over a two-year period, avian sera were collected and tested for neutralizing antibodies against SLEV and WNV. Our results reveal the enzootic activity of both viruses in this challenging environment. SLEV seroprevalence was 4.5% (35/778), with higher activity in spring (2016) and autumn (2017). WNV seroprevalence was 3.5% (27/778), peaking during the summer 2016-2017. Greater seroprevalence for SLEV in 2016 was detected for the Lark-like Brushrunner (Coryphistera alaudina) and the Short-billed Canastero (Asthenes baeri) and in 2017 for the Black-crested Finch (Lophospingus pusillus) and Lark-like Brushrunner, whereas for WNV greater seroprevalence in 2016 was detected for the Picui Ground Dove (Columbina picui) and in 2017 for the Lark-like Brushrunner and Band-tailed Seedeater (Catamenia analis). Additionally, five avian individuals experienced seroconversion during the sampling period, namely the Lark-like Brushrunner and White-fronted Woodpecker (Melanerpes cactorum) for SLEV, and the Lark-like Brushrunner, Greater Wagtail Tyrant (Stigmatura budytoides) and Many-colored Chaco Finch (Saltatricula multicolor) for WNV. The study highlights the persistence and circulation of these viruses in a semiarid ecosystem, raising questions about overwintering mechanisms and transmission dynamics. This research contributes to understanding arbovirus ecology in diverse environments. Further investigations are needed to assess the specific mechanisms facilitating virus persistence in the Monte ecoregion.

Emergence of genotype III St. Louis encephalitis virus in the western United States potentially linked to a wetland in Argentina.

St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is endemic in the Americas and its transmission networks involve Culex mosquitoes and avian species. In 2015, a human encephalitis outbreak took place in Arizona and California, indicating the re-emergence of this pathogen in the US. Viral strains isolated in that outbreak belong to genotype III SLEV previously detected only in South America. In this study, genotype III SLEV was detected in mosquitoes collected in Mar Chiquita Lagoon (Córdoba, Argentina), an overwintering site for numerous migratory bird species. The genotype III SLEV sequence detected in this site shares the closest known ancestor with those introduced in Arizona in 2015. Our results highlight the potential significance of wetlands as key sites for arbovirus maintenance and emergence.

Worldwide transmission and infection risk of mosquito vectors of West Nile, St. Louis encephalitis, Usutu and Japanese encephalitis viruses: a systematic review.

The increasing trend of mosquito-borne pathogens demands more accurate global estimations of infection and transmission risks between mosquitoes. Here, we systematically review field and laboratory studies to assess the natural field infection and experimental laboratory transmission risk in Culex mosquitoes. We studied four worldwide flaviviruses: West Nile, Usutu, Japanese encephalitis, and St. Louis encephalitis, belonging to the Japanese encephalitis Serocomplex (JES). The PRISMA statement was carried out for both approaches. The Transmission-Infection Risk of the diverse mosquito species for the different viruses was estimated through seven variables. We considered 130 and 95 articles for field and experimental approach, respectively. We identified 30 species naturally infected, and 23 species capable to transmit some of the four flaviviruses. For the JES, the highest Transmission-Infection Risk estimate was recorded in Culex quinquefasciatus (North America). The maximum Infection-Transmission Risk values for West Nile was Culex restuans, for Usutu it was Culex pipiens (Europe), for St. Louis encephalitis Culex quinquefasciatus (North America), and for Japanese encephalitis Culex gelidus (Oceania). We conclude that on a worldwide scale, a combination of field and experimental data offers a better way of understanding natural infection and transmission risks between mosquito populations.

Serological Evidence of Exposure to Saint Louis Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses in Horses of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Infections with arboviruses are reported worldwide. Saint Louis encephalitis (SLEV) and West Nile (WNV) viruses are closely related flaviviruses affecting humans and animals. SLEV has been sporadically detected in humans, and corresponding antibodies have been frequently detected in horses throughout Brazil. WNV was first reported in western Brazil over a decade ago, has been associated with neurological disorders in humans and equines and its prevalence is increasing nationwide. Herein, we investigated by molecular and serological methods the presence of SLEV and WNV in equines from Rio de Janeiro. A total of 435 serum samples were collected from healthy horses and tested for specific neutralizing antibodies by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT90). Additionally, samples (serum, cerebrospinal fluid, central nervous system tissue) from 72 horses, including horses with neurological disorders resulting in a fatal outcome or horses which had contact with them, were tested by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) for both viruses. Adopting the criterion of four-fold antibody titer difference, 165 horses (38%) presented neutralizing antibodies for flaviviruses, 89 (20.4%) for SLEV and five (1.1%) for WNV. No evidence of SLEV and WNV infection was detected by RT-qPCR and, thus, such infection could not be confirmed in the additional samples. Our findings indicate horses of Rio de Janeiro were exposed to SLEV and WNV, contributing to the current knowledge on the distribution of these viruses in Brazil.

Epidemiologic and environmental characterization of the Re-emergence of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus in California, 2015-2020.

St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is an endemic flavivirus in the western and southeastern United States, including California. From 1938 to 2003, the virus was detected annually in California, but after West Nile virus (WNV) arrived in 2003, SLEV was not detected again until it re-emerged in Riverside County in 2015. The re-emerging virus in California and other areas of the western US is SLEV genotype III, which previously had been detected only in Argentina, suggesting a South American origin. This study describes SLEV activity in California since its re-emergence in 2015 and compares it to WNV activity during the same period. From 2015 to 2020, SLEV was detected in 1,650 mosquito pools and 26 sentinel chickens, whereas WNV was detected concurrently in 18,108 mosquito pools and 1,542 sentinel chickens from the same samples. There were 24 reported human infections of SLEV in 10 California counties, including two fatalities (case fatality rate: 8%), compared to 2,469 reported human infections of WNV from 43 California counties, with 143 fatalities (case fatality rate: 6%). From 2015 through 2020, SLEV was detected in 17 (29%) of California's 58 counties, while WNV was detected in 54 (93%). Although mosquitoes and sentinel chickens have been tested routinely for arboviruses in California for over fifty years, surveillance has not been uniform throughout the state. Of note, since 2005 there has been a steady decline in the use of sentinel chickens among vector control agencies, potentially contributing to gaps in SLEV surveillance. The incidence of SLEV disease in California may have been underestimated because human surveillance for SLEV relied on an environmental detection to trigger SLEV patient screening and mosquito surveillance effort is spatially variable. In addition, human diagnostic testing usually relies on changes in host antibodies and SLEV infection can be indistinguishable from infection with other flaviviruses such as WNV, which is more prevalent.

Effect of Agroecosystems on Seroprevalence of St. Louis Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses in Birds, La Pampa, Argentina, 2017-2019.

In Argentina, the Pampa ecoregion has been almost completely transformed into agroecosystems. To evaluate the environmental (agricultural area, tree coverage, distance to the nearest water body and urban site) and biological (dove, cowbird, and sparrow abundance) effects on free-ranging bird exposure to St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and West Nile virus (WNV), we used generalized linear mixed models. For 1,019 birds sampled during 2017-2019, neutralizing antibodies were found against SLEV in samples from 60 (5.8%) birds and against WNV for 21 (2.1%). The best variable for explaining SLEV seroprevalence was agricultural area, which had a positive effect; however, for WNV, no model was conclusive. Our results suggest that agroecosystems in the La Pampa ecoregion increase the exposure of avian hosts to SLEV, thus potentially increasing virus activity.

Detection of Antibodies to Lokern, Main Drain, St. Louis Encephalitis, and West Nile Viruses in Vertebrate Animals in Chihuahua, Guerrero, and Michoacán, Mexico.

We conducted serologic surveillance for flaviviruses and orthobunyaviruses in vertebrate animals in Mexico in 2018-2019. Sera were collected from 856 vertebrate animals, including 323 dogs, 223 horses, and 121 cows, from 16 species. The animals were from 3 states: Chihuahua in northwest Mexico (704 animals) and Guerrero and Michoacán on the Pacific Coast (27 and 125 animals, respectively). Sera were assayed by plaque reduction neutralization test using four flaviviruses (dengue type 2, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile, and Zika viruses) and six orthobunyaviruses from the Bunyamwera (BUN) serogroup (Cache Valley, Lokern, Main Drain, Northway, Potosi, and Tensaw viruses). Antibodies to West Nile virus (WNV) were detected in 154 animals of 9 species, including 89 (39.9%) horses, 3 (21.4%) Indian peafowl, and 41 (12.7%) dogs. Antibodies to St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) were detected in seven animals, including three (0.9%) dogs. Antibodies to Lokern virus (LOKV) were detected in 22 animals: 19 (8.5%) horses, 2 (1.7%) cows, and a dog (0.3%). Antibodies to Main Drain virus (MDV) were detected in three (1.3%) horses. WNV and LOKV activity was detected in all three states, SLEV activity was detected in Chihuahua and Michoacán, and MDV activity was detected in Chihuahua. None of the animals was seropositive for Cache Valley virus, the most common and widely distributed BUN serogroup virus in North America. In conclusion, we provide serologic evidence that select flaviviruses and BUN serogroup viruses infect vertebrate animals in Chihuahua, Guerrero, and Michoacán. We also provide the first evidence of LOKV and MDV activity in Mexico.

Arbovirus serosurvey (Orthobunyavirus, Flavivirus, and Alphavirus) in a draft horse population from Santa Fe, Argentina (2013-2016).

In the present study, we serosurveyed the exposure of 222 draft horses to different arboviruses in the city of Santa Fe, Argentina. Plaque reduction neutralization tests confirmed exposure to Fort Sherman virus (FSV), Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), West Nile virus (WNV), and Río Negro virus (RNV). Apparently, Western and Eastern equine encephalitis viruses did not circulate in the population tested. The confirmation of five seroconversions for WNV, FSV, and SLEV and the association between prevalence and age are indicative of recent circulation. These results highlight the importance of considering draft horses in arboviral surveillance in urban and rural areas of developing countries.

Autochthonous circulation of Saint Louis encephalitis and West Nile viruses in the Province of La Rioja, Argentina.

St. Louis encephalitis (SLEV) and West Nile (WNV) arboviruses, which circulate in Argentina, are maintained in enzootic transmission cycles involving Culex mosquitoes (vectors) and birds belonging to orders Passeriformes and Columbiformes (amplifier hosts). The objective of this work was to determine the circulation of both viruses among wild birds in a semiarid ecosystem in the Province of La Rioja through a serologic survey. During spring 2013 and fall 2014, a total of 326 wild birds belonging to 41 species were captured in areas close to the cities of La Rioja and Chilecito, in the Province of La Rioja. While exposure to SLEV and WNV was analyzed in birds' serum through neutralizing antibody detection, viral circulation was estimated through apparent seroprevalence of neutralizing antibodies. The exposure of the avian community to viruses was 3.02% for SLEV and 1.89% for WNV, while 1.19% corresponded to coinfections. Our study confirms for the first time the circulation of SLEV and WNV in wild birds in the Province of La Rioja. Moreover, it is the first study to register neutralizing antibodies for flavivirus in the species Leptotila verreauxi (White-tipped Dove) (WNV) and Melanerpes cactorum (White-fronted Woodpecker) (SLEV). These results suggest that in semiarid ecosystems from northwestern Argentina the requirements and conditions for amplification and enzootic maintenance of SLEV and WNV would be present.

Serological survey for Saint Louis encephalitis virus and West Nile virus in domestic mammals in Córdoba, Argentina: are our pets potential sentinels?

We evaluated the seroprevalence of Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and West Nile virus (WNV) in dogs and cats in Córdoba, Argentina. Monotypic and heterotypic serological patterns were differentiated by means of a neutralization test. The SLEV seroprevalence in dogs was 14.6% (44/302; 100% monotypic). Two out of 94 (2.1%, 100% monotypic) cats were positive for WNV only. Four dogs (1.3%) exhibited neutralizing antibody titers against SLEV and WNV. During the study, three dogs seroconverted to SLEV. Our study demonstrates that pets were useful for detecting viral activity and could be considered as sentinels in the local surveillance of SLEV and WNV.

Movement of St. Louis encephalitis virus in the Western United States, 2014- 2018.

St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is a flavivirus that circulates in an enzootic cycle between birds and mosquitoes and can also infect humans to cause febrile disease and sometimes encephalitis. Although SLEV is endemic to the United States, no activity was detected in California during the years 2004 through 2014, despite continuous surveillance in mosquitoes and sentinel chickens. In 2015, SLEV-positive mosquito pools were detected in Maricopa County, Arizona, concurrent with an outbreak of human SLEV disease. SLEV-positive mosquito pools were also detected in southeastern California and Nevada in summer 2015. From 2016 to 2018, SLEV was detected in mosquito pools throughout southern and central California, Oregon, Idaho, and Texas. To understand genetic relatedness and geographic dispersal of SLEV in the western United States since 2015, we sequenced four historical genomes (3 from California and 1 from Louisiana) and 26 contemporary SLEV genomes from mosquito pools from locations across the western US. Bayesian phylogeographic approaches were then applied to map the recent spread of SLEV. Three routes of SLEV dispersal in the western United States were identified: Arizona to southern California, Arizona to Central California, and Arizona to all locations east of the Sierra Nevada mountains. Given the topography of the Western United States, these routes may have been limited by mountain ranges that influence the movement of avian reservoirs and mosquito vectors, which probably represents the primary mechanism of SLEV dispersal. Our analysis detected repeated SLEV introductions from Arizona into southern California and limited evidence of year-to-year persistence of genomes of the same ancestry. By contrast, genetic tracing suggests that all SLEV activity since 2015 in central California is the result of a single persistent SLEV introduction. The identification of natural barriers that influence SLEV dispersal enhances our understanding of arbovirus ecology in the western United States and may also support regional public health agencies in implementing more targeted vector mitigation efforts to protect their communities more effectively.

Assessment of Immunoglobulin M Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Ratios to Identify West Nile Virus and St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Infections During Concurrent Outbreaks of West Nile Virus and St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Diseases, Arizona 2015.

West Nile virus (WNV) and St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) are closely related mosquito-borne flaviviruses that cause clinical disease ranging from febrile illness to encephalitis. The standard for serological diagnosis is immunoglobulin M (IgM) testing followed by confirmatory plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) to differentiate the infecting virus. However, the PRNT is time-consuming and requires manipulation of live virus. During concurrent WNV and SLEV outbreaks in Arizona in 2015, we assessed use of a diagnostic algorithm to simplify testing. It incorporated WNV and SLEV ratios based on positive-to-negative (P/N) values derived from the IgM antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We compared each sample's ratio-based result with the confirmed WNV or SLEV sample result indicated by PRNT or PCR testing. We analyzed data from 70 patients with 77 serum and cerebrospinal fluid samples, including 53 patients with confirmed WNV infection and 17 patients with confirmed SLEV infection. Both WNV and SLEV ratios had specificity ≥95%, indicating a high likelihood that each ratio was correctly identifying the infecting virus. The SLEV ratio sensitivity of 30% was much lower than the WNV ratio sensitivity of 91%, likely because of higher cross-reactivity of SLEV antibodies and generation of lower P/N values. The standard for serological diagnosis of WNV and SLEV infections remains IgM testing followed by PRNT. However, these results suggest the ratios could potentially be used as part of a diagnostic algorithm in outbreaks to substantially reduce the need for PRNTs.

Comparison of Characteristics of Patients with West Nile Virus or St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Neuroinvasive Disease During Concurrent Outbreaks, Maricopa County, Arizona, 2015.

West Nile virus (WNV) and St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) are closely related mosquito-borne flaviviruses that can cause neuroinvasive disease. No concurrent WNV and SLEV disease outbreaks have previously been identified. When concurrent outbreaks occurred in 2015 in Maricopa County, Arizona, we collected data to describe the epidemiology, and to compare features of patients with WNV and SLEV neuroinvasive disease. We performed enhanced case finding, and gathered information from medical records and patient interviews. A case was defined as a clinically compatible illness and laboratory evidence of WNV, SLEV, or unspecified flavivirus infection in a person residing in Maricopa County in 2015. We compared demographic and clinical features of WNV and SLEV neuroinvasive cases; for this analysis, a case was defined as physician-documented encephalitis or meningitis and a white blood cell count >5 cells/mm3 in cerebrospinal fluid. In total, we identified 82 cases, including 39 WNV, 21 SLEV, and 22 unspecified flavivirus cases. The comparative analysis included 21 WNV and 14 SLEV neuroinvasive cases. Among neuroinvasive cases, the median age of patients with SLEV (63 years) was higher than WNV (52 years). Patients had similar symptoms; rash was identified more frequently in WNV (33%) neuroinvasive cases than in SLEV (7%) cases, but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.11). In summary, during the first known concurrent WNV and SLEV disease outbreaks, no specific clinical features were identified that could differentiate between WNV and SLEV neuroinvasive cases. Health care providers should consider both infections in patients with aseptic meningitis or encephalitis.

Detection of antibodies against Icoaraci, Ilhéus, and Saint Louis Encephalitis arboviruses during yellow fever monitoring surveillance in non-human primates (Alouatta caraya) in southern Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Free-ranging non-human primates (NHPs) can host a variety of pathogenic microorganisms, such as arboviruses, which include the yellow fever virus (YFV). This study aimed to detect the circulation of YF and other arboviruses in three wild Alouatta caraya populations in forests in southern Brazil. METHODS: We collected 40 blood and serum samples from 26 monkeys captured/recaptured up to four times from 2014 to 2016, searching for evidence of arboviruses by virus isolation, PCR, and neutralization tests. RESULTS: Viral isolation and genome detection were negative; however, we detected neutralizing antibodies against the Saint Louis, Ilhéus, and Icoaraci viruses in three NHPs. CONCLUSIONS: Saint Louis Encephalitis, Ilhéus, and Icoaraci viruses circulated recently in the region. Future studies should investigate the role of NHPs, other vertebrate hosts and wild vectors in the region's arbovirus circulation and the potential risks of the arboviruses to wildlife, domestic animals, and humans.

Reemergence of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus in the Americas.

We summarize and analyze historical and current data regarding the reemergence of St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV; genus Flavivirus) in the Americas. Historically, SLEV caused encephalitis outbreaks in the United States; however, it was not considered a public health concern in the rest of the Americas. After the introduction of West Nile virus in 1999, activity of SLEV decreased considerably in the United States. During 2014-2015, SLEV caused a human outbreak in Arizona and caused isolated human cases in California in 2016 and 2017. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the emerging SLEV in the western United States is related to the epidemic strains isolated during a human encephalitis outbreak in Córdoba, Argentina, in 2005. Ecoepidemiologic studies suggest that the emergence of SLEV in Argentina was caused by the introduction of a more pathogenic strain and increasing populations of the eared dove (amplifying host).

St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Disease in the United States, 2003-2017.

St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), an arthropod-borne flavivirus, can cause disease presentations ranging from mild febrile illness through severe encephalitis. We reviewed U.S. national SLEV surveillance data for 2003 through 2017, including human disease cases and nonhuman infections. Over the 15-year period, 198 counties from 33 states and the District of Columbia reported SLEV activity; 94 (47%) of those counties reported SLEV activity only in nonhuman species. A total of 193 human cases of SLEV disease were reported, including 148 cases of neuroinvasive disease. A median of 10 cases were reported per year. The national average annual incidence of reported neuroinvasive disease cases was 0.03 per million. States with the highest average annual incidence of reported neuroinvasive disease cases were Arkansas, Arizona, and Mississippi. No large outbreaks occurred during the reporting period. The most commonly reported clinical syndromes were encephalitis (N = 116, 60%), febrile illness (N = 35, 18%), and meningitis (N = 25, 13%). Median age of cases was 57 years (range 2-89 years). The case fatality rate was 6% (11/193) and all deaths were among patients aged > 45 years with neuroinvasive disease. Nonhuman surveillance data indicated wider SLEV activity in California, Nevada, and Florida than the human data alone suggested. Prevention depends on community efforts to reduce mosquito populations and personal protective measures to decrease exposure to mosquitoes.

Evaluation of Argentinean Bird Species as Amplifying Hosts for St. Louis Encephalitis Virus (Flavivirus, Flaviviridae).

St.Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) is an emerging human pathogen flavivirus in Argentina. Recently, it has reemerged in the United States. We evaluated the role as amplifying host of six resident bird species and analyzed their capacity as host during the 2005 encephalitis outbreak of SLEV in Córdoba. Eared Dove, Picui Ground Dove, and House Sparrow were the three species with highest host competence index. At a city level, Eared Dove and Picui Ground Dove were the most important amplifying hosts during the 2005 SLEV human outbreak in Córdoba city. This finding highlighted important differences in the SLEV ecology between Argentina and the United States. Characterizing and evaluating the SLEV hosts contribute to our knowledge about its ecology and could help us to understand the causes that promote its emergence as a human pathogen in South America.

Neuroinvasive St. Louis Encephalitis Virus Infection in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients.

In summer 2015, three unrelated solid organ transplant recipients in Phoenix, Arizona, had meningoencephalitis suggestive of West Nile virus (WNV) infection. Testing was inconclusive but was later confirmed as St. Louis encephalitis (SLE). We retrospectively reviewed clinical manifestations, treatment, and outcomes of these transplant recipients. Common symptoms were fever, rigors, diarrhea, headache, and confusion. One patient died 3 days after hospitalization. Therapy for the other two patients was initiated with interferon α-2b (IFN) and intravenous IgG (IVIG; IFN plus IVIG in combination). Both patients tested positive for WNV by serologic assay, but SLE virus (SLEV) infection was later confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization test at a reference laboratory. Clinical improvement was observed within 72 h after initiation of IFN plus IVIG. SLEV has been an uncommon cause of neuroinvasive disease in the United States. Accurate, timely diagnosis is hindered because of clinical presentation similar to neuroinvasive WNV and SLE, serologic cross-reactivity, and lack of a commercially available serologic assay for SLEV. There is currently no approved therapy for flaviviral neuroinvasive disease. Anecdotal reports indicate varying success with IFN, IVIG, or IFN plus IVIG in WNV neuroinvasive disease. The same regimen might be of value for immunocompromised persons with neuroinvasive SLEV infection.

Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus, another re-emerging arbovirus: a literature review of worldwide research.

Not available.

Tissue tropism of Saint Louis encephalitis virus: Histopathology triggered by epidemic and non-epidemic strains isolated in Argentina.

Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) reemerged in South America, and caused encephalitis outbreaks at the beginning of the 21st century. To enhance our knowledge about SLEV virulence, we performed comparative pathogenesis studies in Swiss albino mice inoculated with two different variants, the epidemic strain CbaAr-4005 and the non-epidemic strain CorAn-9275. Only the infection of mice with SLEV strain CbaAr-4005 resulted in high viremia, invasion of peripheral tissues including the lungs, kidney, and spleen, and viral neuroinvasion. This was associated with inflammatory pathology in the lungs, spleen, and brain as well as morbidity and mortality. In contrast, neither signs of desease nor viral replication were observed in mice infected with strain CorAn-9275. Interestingly, important loss of B cells and development of altered germinal centers (GC) were detected in the spleen of mice infected with strain CbaAr-4005, whereas mice infected with SLEV CorAn-9275 developed prominent GC with conserved follicular architecture, and neutralizing antibodies.